PROBLEM SOLVING TEACHING SERVICES
STUDY AIDS SEVEN: PLANNING SKILLS
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Section One: Core Concepts
Section Two: Types Of Assignment
Section Three: Types Of Essays
Section Four: The Purpose Of Assignments
Section Five: Planning An Essay
Section Six: Planning Sheets
Section Seven: Readership
Section Eight: Levels Of Readership
Section Nine: Title Selection
Section Ten: The Differences Between Essay And Report Writing
Section Eleven: Stages In Report Writing
Section Twelve: Plagiarism
Section Thirteen: Concluding Comments
Appendix One: The ‘Three Say’ Technique
Appendix Two: Readers' Order Of Interest
Appendix Three: Criteria For Subject Selection
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Aims |
Upon completion of this document, the student should be in a position to thoroughly prepare any written assignment, by being able to:-
1. Differentiate Between The Various Types Of Assignment.
2. Distinguish Various Types Of Essays.
3. Plan Any Written Assignment.
4. Select Good Titles.
5. Pick Out The Differences Between Essay Writing And Report Writing.
6. Avoid Plagiarism.
7. Relate Effectively To His/Her Readership.
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Section
One: |
An assignment is any oral, practical or written task given to a student with a view to assessing his/her competence in a particular subject area. It can include anything from set essays and reports, through to verbal presentations in class.
For its part,
an essay is a written attempt to describe facts and to logically put forward a
case, while making use of any available evidence. Usually confined to one subject, it derives from the French
'essayer' meaning 'to attempt'.
Lastly, assignment skills are those skills which serve to produce the highest possible marks for which a student's subject knowledge allows. To prevent any unnecessary complication, the term 'assignment skills' is taken to be the equivalent of 'essay writing skills'.
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Section
Two: |
Types of assignment are:-
2.1 ORAL These May Include:-
2.1.1 Individual
Presentations
2.1.2 Group
Presentations
2.1.3 Formal Speeches
2.1.4 Answering Any Questions Put Forward By The Audience
2.2 PRACTICAL These May Include:-
2.2.1 Demonstrations With Equipment
2.2.2 Preparing Displays And Samples Of One's Work
2.2.3 Various Physical Tasks
2.3 WRITTEN These May Include:-
2.3.1 Formal Exams
2.3.2 Research Reports
2.3.3 Short Or Long Essays (Often Called Dissertations)
2.3.4 Structured Exercises
2.3.5 Theses
Sometimes the title of an assignment may be 'set', whilst on other occasions it may only be decided upon after negotiation with relevant education authorities. Therefore, a distinction is made between 'set' and 'negotiated' assignments. Either of which place somewhat different pressures upon the student.
For its part, a 'set assignment' usually offers a clear structure for the student to follow. However this advantage is quickly countered by it's rigidity which may demand proficiency in areas in which the student feels less able. By way of contrast, a 'negotiated assignment' offers the student a chance to explore areas in which they feel an interest, However this benefit may be outweighed by contrasts upon time and resources. Also, negotiations with any relevant education authorities may be protracted. This in turn may force the student to impose severe modification upon any original ideas.
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Section
Three: Types of Essays |
Types of essays are:-
3.1 Discursive - Often
requiring the writer to AGREE or to DISAGREE with various interpretations
of an event (reasons for agreement or disagreement are usually expected).
3.2 Evaluatory - (Or judgmental), requiring an explanation as to WHY certain events happened.
3.3 Factual - Simply requiring a description of WHAT happened.
3.4 Mixed - Combining most or all of the previous three types.
At higher educational levels, essays tend to become more evaluative and factual. This means that:-
At GCSE essays are mainly factual
At 'A' level they are mainly mixed
At undergraduate and postgraduate level they are mainly evaluative (although longer written assignments tend to be mixed again).
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Section
Four: |
Assignments should attempt to:-
4.1 Aid The Learning Process.
4.2 Assess Ability, Presentation And Progress In A Particular Subject.
4.3 Clarify Personal Opinion On A Subject.
4.4 Develop Understanding.
4.5 Encourage Research Into And Reflection On A Subject.
4.6 Heighten The Student’s Ability To Present A Well Structured Case.
4.7 Increase Knowledge.
4.8 Pick Out Any Educational Problems.
4.9 Provide Useful Work Skills.
4.10 Strengthen Self-Expression.
For their part, essays do all of the above, though mainly concentrating upon written skills.
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Section
Five: Planning an Essay |
Good planning is the mother of good essay writing. While preparing an essay, the first questions to ask are "why am I doing this essay?" and "who am I writing it for?" Essay planning can be divided into the following stages:-
5.1 Definition - The First Basic Stage Of Essay Planning. It Means To:-
5.1.1 Decide Upon
The Central Purpose Of The Essay - Why Is It Being Written?
5.1.2 Locate The Possible Audience, Who Is It Being Written For?
5.2 Creation - The Second Basic Stage Of Essay Writing. It Means To Generate Creative Ideas Through:-
5.2.1 'BRAINSTORMING' - Jotting Down Ideas In Random Order On Brainstorming Sheets.
5.2.2 'WORD ASSOCIATION' - Recording Any Associations Which A Key Word In The Title May Have.
5.2.3 'NUCLEATED NOTE-TAKING' - Attempting To Place New Ideas In Some Form Of Order.
5.2.4 'RESEARCHING' - Obtaining Enough Adequate Background Information To Complete The Essay. These May Well Be Placed On Sequential Notes.
5.3 Organisation - The Third Basic Stage Of Essay Planning. It Means To Plot Ideas Into A Rough And Ready Order Through:
5.3.1 Discarding Any Obviously Unhelpful Material.
5.3.2 Dividing The Remaining
Ideas Into A Beginning, A Middle And An End (Appendix One).
5.4 Development - The Fourth Basic Stage. It Means To:-
5.4.1 Undertake Any Further Necessary Primary And/Or Secondary Research.
5.4.2 Develop Existing Ideas, While Jotting Down Any New Ones.
5.5 Formulation - The Fifth Basic Stage. It Means To:-
5.5.1 Draw Up A Detailed Plan, Placing Any Arguments And Information In The Order In Which The Essay Is To Be Written. Various Types Of Planning Sheets May Be Prepared.
5.5.2 Note Down Key Words And Phrases.
5.6 Drafting - The Sixth Basic Stage. It Means To Write Out A First Draft Which Is Then Corrected Or Amended In Any Subsequent Drafts.
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Section
Six: Planning Sheets |
By the time planning is completed, the following types of sheet should be kept. These are:-
6.1 Brainstorming Sheets -
These May Include Nucleated Notes.
6.2 Lists Of All Primary And Secondary Information Sources.
6.3 Planning Sheets - These Record Rough And Detailed Outline Structures.
6.4 Sequential Notes - These Record Material From Any Primary Or Secondary Sources.
For reference purposes, all of the above sheets should be kept distinct from one another. Ideally, they should all be able to contribute a great deal to the first draft.
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Section
Seven:
Readership |
An important consideration is, "who am I writing for?" A given audience may be:-
7.1 Homogeneous - Comprising Of The Same Kind Of Person (E.g. 'A' Level Examiners)
7.2 Heterogeneous -
Comprising Of A Diversity Of People (E.g. Employees, Examiners And Fellow
Students).
Another related consideration is "what frame of mind is the audience likely to be in?", i.e. an over-worked examiner with a hundred other essays to mark is likely to have far less patience with ambiguity than a fellow expert who has the whole summer break to reflect upon what's been written.
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Section
Eight: Level of Readership |
A further factor to take into account is "on what level do the readers operate?" Here, the reader can either be:
8.1 'UPMARKET' - That Is, Consisting Of Those Possessing A Superior Knowledge Within A Given Subject Area (E.g. Employer, Examiner Or Specialist)
8.2 'MIDDLE MARKET' - That Is, Consisting Of Those Possessing Equal Knowledge Of A Given Subject Area (E.g. Fellow Employees And Students).
8.3 'DOWN MARKET' - That
Is, Consisting Of Those Possessing Less Knowledge In A Given Subject Area (E.g.
Business Clients, Juniors, Students, Or Anyone Under Authority).
However, at all three levels, good communication is important. Writing 'downmarket' should NOT be used as an excuse for sloppy presentation. Ideally, the student should usually try to write for the intelligent reader in the street (Appendix Two).
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Section
Nine:
Title Section |
In order for a chosen title to aid the general emphasis of an assignment, it should be :-
9.1 Brief
9.2 Eye-Catching.
9.3 Informative.
9.4 Memorable.
9.5 A Description Of What
Is Being Done.
9.6 A Building Block Upon Which The Essay Can Grow.(Appendix Three).
It is ALWAYS IMPORTANT TO KEEP TO THE SUBJECT OF THE TITLE, i.e. if the title is 'Sunflowers in the Caucasus' the student should write about 'Sunflowers in the Caucasus' and not wander off to describe 'Tulips in Holland'.
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Section
Ten:
The
Differences Between Essay and Report Writing |
Essays differ from reports in the following areas:-
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Essays |
Reports |
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10.1 |
Often designed to increase theoretical
knowledge. |
Often deal with a practical problem with
an application of, or whilst applying
theoretical knowledge. |
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10.2 |
Can be short. |
Usually long. |
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10.3 |
Can follow a simple three-part structure. |
Often has a complex structure. |
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10.4 |
Can more often be written in a literary
style. |
Tends to be written in a factual
analytical style. |
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10.5 |
Emphasis is often on 'text book'
knowledge only. |
Emphasis upon primary as well as
secondary data. |
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10.6 |
May not have footnotes and appendices. |
Invariably contain footnotes and
appendices. |
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10.7 |
Usually follow a set title or question. |
Title often negotiated. |
By nature, reports test a far wider skill-range than essays. Besides having a working knowledge of the subject and basic writing ability, the student must also have a talent for organisation. While it's usually true to say that a bad essay writer is almost always a bad report writer, this does NOT mean that a good essay writer is always a good report writer. In order to succeed, a report writer needs certain extra qualities, i.e. an ability to plough through what can often be very frustrating research.
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Section
Eleven:
Stages in Report Writing |
Report writing often involves the following stages:-
11.1 Collecting Facts.
11.2 Deciding What Those Facts Can Reveal.
11.3 Making A Reasoned Statement Of Opinions.
In practice, these stages can often run together, so that the student is covering all three stages simultaneously.
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Section
Twelve: Plagiarism |
Before commencing any written assignment IT IS ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL to be familiar with the term 'plagarisation'. It means THE USE OF SOMEONE ELSE'S IDEAS AND WORDS WITHOUT ACKNOWLEDGING THEM. It is the most deadly sin in the academic world; because other people's ideas are claimed to be one's own. In brief, it represents the theft of other people's work.
When it does occur, IT CAN OFTEN BE SPOTTED, as the writer's own style does not somehow match that of the source.
Plagiarism can be prevented by:-
12.1 Expressing Other People's Ideas In One's Own Words.
12.2 Having A Justified Confidence In One's Own Knowledge And Writing Style.
12.3 Making A Careful Note Of Any References And Source Of Ideas.
12.4 Placing Any Quotes
Within Quotation Marks (This Also Applies To Slang And Popular
Sayings).e.g. "Wotcha mate!"
12.5 Naming A Source Either With Or Without Brackets E.g. "(...Suggested)" Or "According To One Viewpoint ( T. Bagnall 1996)" Where Possible, Such Citations Should Include The Year In Which The Source Was First Published.
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Section
Thirteen:Concluding Comments |
Careful preparation can save much unnecessary work in the later stages of assignment writing, with only two or three drafts being needed, instead of four or five. Careful preparation also helps keep to the main point of the title.
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Appendix
One: The
‘Three Say’ Technique |
Sometimes students are encouraged to employ the "three say technique" which states:-
SAY What You're Going To Say
SAY It
SAY That You Have Said It.
Although helpful for beginners (or in the writing of rough drafts) this technique quickly becomes redundant even at secondary school level as it leads to a dull, plodding kind of style. It's main use during the initial free-writing stage of an essay.
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Appendix
Two:
Readers Order of Interest |
No matter what their level, readers usually follow a set order of interest, which is:-
1. Themselves
First
2. Other People Next
3. Things Affecting Themselves Next
4. Things Affecting Other People Next
5. Abstract Concepts Last
Back to Top
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Appendix
Three: Criteria For
Subject Selection |
Title selection is often connected to subject selection. Concerning the selection of a subject, the student is often given a wide range of options - especially in large projects. The problem here is that many students often panic and begin writing on the first subject they chance upon. A far better response would be to select a subject in which the student:-
1. Has An Interest
2. Can Gain The Approval Of The Relevant Education Authorities
3. Can Gather Enough Information
4. Can Nurture His/Her Professional Skills.
In selecting a subject, the second and third criteria must have priority over the other two, i.e. it would be a waste of time to choose a fascinating subject only to find that there wasn't enough data on it. Nonetheless, despite this qualification, it is usually wise to try and avoid a subject which may be completely tedious.