PROBLEM SOLVING TEACHING SERVICES
STUDY AIDS FIVE: EFFECTIVE WRITING SKILLS
Contents |
Section One:
Core Concept
Section Two: The Main Types Of Writing
Section Three: The Characteristics Of Effective Writing
Section Four: The Differences Between The Written And Spoken Word
Section Five: 'Golden Rules' To Effective Writing
Section Six: Preparing To Write Effectively
Section Seven: Seven Things To Avoid In Writing
Section Eight: Gaining Precision In One's Writing
Section Nine: The 'Active' And The 'Passive' Voice
Section Ten: Circumlocutions
Section Eleven: Link Words
Section Twelve: Signposting
Section Thirteen: Examples Of Signpost Words
Section
Fourteen:
Concluding Comments
Appendix One: Illustrating A Communication Chain And Its Vulnerability To 'Noise'
Appendix Two:
Illustrating
The Impressions That Are Created By The Use Of Good And Bad Writing
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Aims |
On completion of this document the student should be in a position to begin improving his/her semantic skills, with particular reference to:-
1. Knowing The Differences Between Various Types Of Writing
2. Picking Out The Characteristics Of Effective Writing
3. Understanding The Contrasts Between The Written And Spoken Word
4. Following The 'Golden Rules' Of Effective Writing
5. Avoiding Those Traits That Make For Bad Writing
6. Employing 'Link Words' And Signposts
7. Lessening Any
Unfavourable Impressions Already Created By The Use Of A 'Bad Writing Style'
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Section
One: |
Semantic skills are those skills which help a student to gain 'an artistry in words'. Their powers of expression are developed so that they can produce written work of a high quality.
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Section
Two: |
The main types of writing are:-
2.1 Expository Writing
This type of writing is used to describe, explain, objectively argue with and comment upon a person or thing.
2.2 Expressive Writing
This type of writing is used to express emotions and to convey subjective feelings - often in poetical form.
2.3 Legalised Writing
This type of writing sets out (often in great detail) constitutional rules, government regulations, organisational codes of practice and conditions of contract.
2.4 Narrative Writing
This type of writing is used to recount an event or to tell a story.
2.5 Polemical Writing
This type of writing is used to demolish or to propagate a particular viewpoint, to expose an abuse or to provoke controversial discussion.
Writing involves the transference of thoughts from the writer's mind via the written word to the reader's mind. Hence, as Appendix One shows, a communication chain exists between a writer and his/her audience. At every point this chain may be broken by 'noise' which can be deemed as any factor which hinders effective communication between people. This ‘noise’ factor may include such things as a poor use of words, ill health, interruptions and limited comprehension on the part of the reader. The writer's role is to lessen the risk of 'noise' occurring by acquiring all of the major characteristics that make up for effective writing. These are listed in the next section.
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Section
Three:
The Characteristics of
Effective Writing
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Those characteristics which constitute an effective piece of writing are:-
3.1 Accuracy
3.2 Appropriateness
3.3 Balance
3.4 Clarity
3.5 Completeness
3.6 Consistency
3.7 Control
3.8 Employment Of Adequate Explanations
3.9 Impartiality
3.10 Interest
3.11 Order
3.12 Originality
3.13 Persuasiveness
3.14 Precision
3.15 Relevance
3.16 Simplicity
3.17 Sincerity
3.18 Unified Structure
3.19 Use Of Appropriate Illustrations And Qualifications
3.20 Use
Of Clearly Defined ‘Beginnings’, ‘Middles’ And
‘Ends’.
N.B. However, not all of these characteristics have to be found in one piece of writing, i.e. originality is hardly required in an Inland Revenue tax report.
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Section
Four: |
To begin writing effectively, the student must first of all appreciate the difference between the written and the spoken word. Writing differs from speaking in that:-
4.1 It Demands Higher
Standards Of Expression As It Is Not Supplemented By non-verbal Communication
4.2 It Is Often More Formal.
4.3 It Is Slower And Less Spontaneous As People Speak Quicker Than They Write.
4.4 It Is Used Less Often In Daily Life.
4.5 It Often Requires The Writer To Make All Of The Decisions Regarding Both Subject And Style.
4.6 Obtaining Feedback And Criticism Usually Takes Longer.
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Section
Five:
'Golden Rules' to Effective
Writing |
The 'Golden Rules' to effective writing are:-
5.1 Preferring A
Concrete, As Opposed To An Abstract Expression.
5.2 Preferring A Single Word Rather Than A Circumlocution.
5.3 Preferring The Active Rather Than The Passive Voice.
5.4 Preferring The 'Saxon' To The 'Romance' Word E.g. ‘What Will Be Will Be’ Instead Of ‘Que. Sera, Sera’.
5.6 Preferring To Employ External Aids Where Necessary (E.g.: Dictionaries, English Grammar Books, Rogets Thesaurus And PSTS Study Notes!).
5.7 Preferring To Employ The Familiar, Rather Than The Far Fetched Word.
5.8 Preferring To Generate A Good Rather Than A Bad Impression.
(Appendix
Two)
5.9 Preferring To Use A Clear And Concise Meaning, Rather Than An Ambiguous One.
5.10 Preferring To Use Modern Information Technology, When Available.
It should also be borne in mind that the greater the pleasure the author has in writing, the greater the likelihood of it having a beneficial effect upon the reader.
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Section
Six:
Preparing to Write Effectively |
Preparing to write effectively involves:-
6.1 Adopting A Clear Focus Or Theme.
6.2 Assessing The Overall Structure And Content.
6.3 Being Fully Convinced That There Is Something Worth Saying In The First Place.
6.4 Consciously Bearing In Mind The Audience For Whom It Is Written.
6.5 Deciding Upon The Most Advantageous Style And Persevering With It.
6.6 Devising And Following A Well Laid Plan.
6.7 Always Keeping In Mind The Main Purpose Of What's Been Written.
6.8 Having A Realistic Sense Of Proportion I.e. It May Not Be A Perfect Piece Of Work The First Time Around.
6.9 Resisting Any Temptation To Wander From The Main Point.
6.10 Taking Care To Say Exactly What Needs To Be Said, In As Simple And Succinct A Manner As Possible.
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Section
Seven:
Things to Avoid in Writing
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While writing, it is advisable to try and avoid:-
7.1 Any abbreviations in written prose, i.e. 'circa' for 'about' or 'viz.' for 'namely'.
7.2 Any clichés, i.e. 'a fair and reasonable offer'.
7.3 Any dogmatic assertions, not collaborated by the available evidence, e.g. "women are always treated as second class citizens in every society".
7.4 Any dead or unnecessary words e.g. 'bunkum and balderdash' or 'completely, utterly and very untrue'.
7.5 Any obscenity or personal idiosyncrasies, e.g. having the words ‘you know’ in every other sentence.
7.6 Any obsolete wording that may have changed its meaning, e.g. 'broad cast zone' used to mean 'spreading the grain' but now means 'spreading ideas'.
7.7 Any needless lengthening of a word such as 'method' to 'methodology'.
7.8 Any needless
provocation that may lead to an outright objection from the reader, e.g. "all short people are bossy".
7.9 Any "filling out" or "padding", i.e. "it is very interesting to note", "from certain particular viewpoints".
7.10 Any pomposity - which tends only to engender within the reader such feelings as annoyance, amusement or confusion, e.g. "We have here the most fabulous, the most moving, the most enervating, the most stimulating, the most delectable act of our present time".
7.11 Any slander or libel, e.g. "Sir Nigel Bloodaxe, the newspaper proprietor is an absolute crook who lies and cheats to get his way".
7.12 Any use of slang (colloquialism), except in dialogue or inside quotation marks. This would show the deliberate intention of departing from the normal style of writing, e.g. when he reached the STOCK market, all he could think of was the slogan, "u gotta sell"
7.13 Any technical jargon without prior explanation to non-specialist readers, e.g. ‘The Ethnomethodological paradigm hypothesises that ....."
7.14 Any unnecessary compound words, e.g. "Dickens manages to convince" should be "Dickens convinces" and "Shaw is trying to put over the point that" should be "Shaw puts over the point that".
7.15 Any use of evasive circumlocutions unless absolutely necessary, e.g. "A most interesting example of Modern Art" which really means "this painting is dreadful!"
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Section Eight: Gaining Precision in Writing |
To gain any degree of precision, the writer should:-
8.1 Aim for a style which is DLSV, or Direct, Lucid, Simple and Vigorous.
8.2 Alternate long with short sentences and also alternate both long and short paragraphs.
8.3 Always document information sources - to avoid plagiarism.
8.4 Always guide the reader through the use of signposts and linking words.
8.5 Be alert to the sound of what is being written - if it sounds good it probably is good.
8.6 Be cautious about employing fashionable words that could quickly become out of date, for example 'collateral damage', 'game plan', 'ongoing situation', 'teach-in'.
8.7 Be consistent in the use of past or present tense.
8.8 Employ words that confer a precise rather than a vague meaning, e.g. use 'imply' not 'infer', 'close' not 'approximately', 'different' from 'not different to', and 'superior to' not 'superior than'.
8.9 Ensure that every sentence has a 'doing' word, i.e. "he ran to the bus stop".
8.10 Ensure that every sentence contains no tautology i.e. 'the round circle', 'the dead corpse', 'the final incident at the end'.
8.11 Give due care and attention to sound punctuation.
8.12 Avoid the habit of writing words in inverted commas unless they are a proverbial saying or part of a quote
8.13 Make use of
imaginative illustrations or picture language, where appropriate. i.e “The
Nuclear Explosion shone with the light of a million suns.”
8.14 Try to relate what is written to daily life.
8.15 Write nothing, if there is nothing to say.
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Section
Nine:
The 'Active' and 'Passive'
Voice |
Briefly, the difference between the two voices are:-
9.1 A passive voice enables the author to avoid the first person - which is unacceptable in many academic circles. However, it can sound exceedingly verbose and artificial. When using the passive voice, the object of an action precedes the verb as in the examples below:
"A colleague’s papers were to be read"
"Colleagues and staff were asked to"
9.2 In contrast, an active voice gives a sense of vitality and 'bite' to the written word. When using the active voice the actual subject of the verb becomes the ‘doer’ of the action. This results in the communication being more personal and more alive as is shown in the examples below:
"We have all read a mass of papers"
"I asked my colleagues and staff to"
9.3 Briefly, the passive voice avoids personal designations like ‘I’, ‘we’, ‘they’ while the active voice makes a point of including them. However, both ‘voices’ can be used in a past, present or future tense.
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Section
Ten:
Circumlocutions |
Circumlocutions are 'cloudy phrases' that tend to obscure the real meaning of words. However, in certain circumstances they may be used to:
10.1 'Buy time' - to enable the speaker to search for an answer for example:
"It seems to me at this moment in time" "In vague connection with"
10.2 Cause the reader to pause and reflect upon what's been said
10.3 Avoid any sense of repetitiveness in style
10.4 Prevent an over-use of simple words and phrases
10.5 Aid the process of diplomacy, for example: "It seems to me that what may be being said here does not accord too well with the available facts of the matter". This is a polite way of saying "you're lying".
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Section
Eleven: LINK
WORDS |
It is advisable to employ link words to aid sentence flow. Using them also helps to expand, qualify or contradict an argument. Some examples would be:-
11.1 At One Level It Is Possible To See...
11.2 At The Same Time...
11.3 But First We Must Dispense With...
11.4 But There Are Perhaps Other Factors...
11.5 Certainly...
11.6 Conversely...
11.7 In Fact...
11.8 In Order To Understand...
11.9 Nevertheless...
11.10 None Of This Is To Deny...
11.11 Not Only, But Also...
11.12 Of Course...
11.13 On The Other Hand...
11.14 There Are Several Problems With...
11.15 To Aid Comprehension, It Is Necessary To...
N.B. Shorter link words like 'definitely' tend to convey a greater degree of certainty than longer ones. They show the reader how to approach the next sentence, while still linking it in with the previous one.
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Section
Twelve: Signposting |
Signposting serves to remind the reader where they are within a given piece of writing. They are words or phrases that:-
12.1 Assist In The Presentation Of Lists
12.2 Highlight What The Writer Is And Is Not Talking About
12.3 Repeat Key Points Within A Work
12.4 Reveal Any New Direction Within An Argument
12.5 Show A Particular Stage In An Argument
N.B. The Link words in the previous
section can of themselves act as 'Signposts'.
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Section
Thirteen:
Examples of Signpost Words |
Signposting is achieved by employing such words as:-
13.1 Another Point...
13.2 As We Have Seen...
13.3 As I Was Stating...
13.4 Before Discussing X, We Must First Question Y...
13.5 But Apart From That There Is...
13.6 Finally...
13.7 Furthermore...
13.8 Having Considered The Argument...
13.9 Having Questioned That Point...
13.10 In Short...
13.11 One Final Factor To Be Taken Into Account...
13.12 One Further Line Of Enquiry Is...
13.13 To Begin With...
13.14 To Continue This Point...
13.15 To
Sum Up...
13.16 Whilst Drawing Matters To A Close...
Section
Fourteen:
Concluding
Comments
Effective writing skills is a discipline which is to be practised as well as learnt. Without this practice it is unlikely that significant improvement would occur in the students presentation.
Appendix
One:
Illustrating A Communication Chain And Its Vulnerability To "Noise"
Noise
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The Written Word (As Read By The Reader) |
The Reader’s Thoughts |
The Writer’s Thoughts (Placed In The Readers Mind) |
It is important to note how “noise” can disrupt the communication point at every point.
Good “semantic skills” are one way to reduce the problem.
Appendix Two:
Illustrating The Impressions That Are Created By Good And Bad Writing
1. THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD IMPRESSION CREATED
WRITING STYLE
1.1 Clarity Considerate
1.2 Correct
Spelling And Punctuation Well-Educated
1.3 Good “Flow”
Of Words Articulate
1.4 Good
use Of Grammar Competent
1.5 Well
Ordered Organised
1.6 Well
Presented Arguments Forceful
2. THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF A BAD IMPRESSION CREATED
WRITING STYLE
2.1 Illegible Inconsiderate
2.2 Incorrect
Spelling And Punctuation Lazy
2.3 Poor
Deployment Of Words Inarticulate
2.4 Poor
Use Of Grammar Careless
2.5 Poorly
Ordered Disorganised
2.6 Unconvincing
And Poorly Presented Incompetent
Arguments